A selected reading list of original studies, scholarly reviews, and reference material. The notes explain why each source is included. Read the original work for its methods and limitations.
Elizabeth F. Loftus, John C. Palmer (1974). Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13(5), 585–589.
A foundational experiment showing that wording after an event can affect later reports and recollection.
Marcia K. Johnson, Shahin Hashtroudi, D. Stephen Lindsay (1993). Psychological Bulletin, 114(1), 3–28.
Develops the source-monitoring framework for understanding how people attribute memories and information to origins.
Kimberley A. Wade, Maryanne Garry, J. Don Read, D. Stephen Lindsay (2002). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 597–603.
Examines whether a fabricated childhood photograph, paired with imagery instructions, can contribute to false reports of an event.
Stephan Lewandowsky, Ullrich K. H. Ecker, Colleen M. Seifert, Norbert Schwarz, John Cook (2012). Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3), 106–131.
Reviews why misinformation can continue to influence reasoning and how corrections can be designed more effectively.
Cristian Vaccari, Andrew Chadwick (2020). Social Media + Society, 6(1).
An experiment examining deception, uncertainty, and trust after exposure to synthetic political video.
Sophie J. Nightingale, Hany Farid (2022). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(8).
Tests participants’ ability to distinguish a set of AI-synthesized faces from real faces and evaluates perceived trustworthiness.
Elise Bonnail, Julian Frommel, Eric Lecolinet, Samuel Huron, Jan Gugenheimer (2024). Proceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems.
Investigates source confusion between actions performed in physical and virtual environments.
Nicholas Epley, Adam Waytz, John T. Cacioppo (2007). Psychological Review, 114(4), 864–886.
Proposes a framework for why people attribute humanlike qualities, intentions, or mental states to nonhuman agents.
Donald Horton, R. Richard Wohl (1956). Psychiatry, 19(3), 215–229.
Introduces parasocial interaction as a way to describe perceived intimacy with media performers.
Matthew Lombard, Theresa Ditton (1997). Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(2).
Synthesizes ways researchers use presence to describe the experience of a medium becoming less noticeable or feeling immediate.
Gillian Murphy, Didier Ching, Eoghan Meehan, John Twomey, Aaron Bolger, Conor Linehan (2025). Applied Cognitive Psychology.
Compares political misinformation formats. Deepfakes were not consistently more effective than text; follow-up found no lasting measurable changes in beliefs or memories after debriefing.
National Association for Media Literacy Education (n.d.). NAMLE.
A professional definition and explanation of the skills involved in accessing, analyzing, evaluating, creating, and acting with media.
Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett (2020). OpenStax, Rice University.
An introductory textbook explanation of learning associations between stimuli.
Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett (2020). OpenStax, Rice University.
An introductory textbook explanation of how consequences influence behavior.
Coalition for Content Provenance and Authenticity (n.d.). C2PA.
Explains signed records of media history and their limits. Provenance information does not determine whether a claim is true.
Marcia K. Johnson, Carol L. Raye (1981). Psychological Review.
A foundational model of how people distinguish memories of external perceptions from internally generated information.
Raja Parasuraman, Dietrich H. Manzey (2010). Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
Reviews automation-related decision errors and how attention, task conditions, and system characteristics contribute.
John D. Lee, Katrina A. See (2004). Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
Reviews trust in automation and how trust can support appropriate reliance on a system.
Raymond S. Nickerson (1998). Review of General Psychology.
Reviews forms of selective evidence seeking and interpretation that favor existing beliefs or hypotheses.
Melanie C. Green, Timothy C. Brock (2000). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Studies involvement in written narratives and its relationship to story-consistent beliefs and character evaluations.
Nick Yee, Jeremy Bailenson (2007). Human Communication Research.
Introduces experiments on avatar appearance and behavior. Immediate task effects do not establish enduring personality change.
Konstantina Kilteni, Raphaela Groten, Mel Slater (2012). Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments.
Reviews the sense of embodiment through self-location, agency, and body ownership.
Jon Roozenbeek, Sander van der Linden, Beth Goldberg, Steve Rathje, Stephan Lewandowsky (2022). Science Advances.
Tests short inoculation videos in controlled and field studies; results concern specific interventions and measured outcomes.
Evan F. Risko, Sam J. Gilbert (2016). Trends in Cognitive Sciences.
Reviews how external actions and tools change a task's cognitive demands, and how people decide when to offload.
Maryanne Garry, Charles G. Manning, Elizabeth F. Loftus, Steven J. Sherman (1996). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review.
Tests changes in confidence that childhood events occurred after imagining them. Confidence is distinct from a detailed recollective experience.
Berkeley J. Dietvorst, Joseph P. Simmons, Cade Massey (2015). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
Examines avoidance of algorithmic forecasts after observing errors, even when the algorithm outperforms a human alternative.
Jennifer M. Logg, Julia A. Minson, Don A. Moore (2019). Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.
Studies conditions in which people give algorithmic advice more weight than human advice.
Rolf Reber, Christian Unkelbach (2010). Review of Philosophy and Psychology.
Examines processing ease as a cue in truth judgments and the conditions that shape its interpretation.
Frank Biocca, Chad Harms, Judee K. Burgoon (2003). Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments.
Reviews definitions and measures of social presence in mediated interaction.
Dan Sperber, Fabrice Clément, Christophe Heintz, Olivier Mascaro, Hugo Mercier, Gloria Origgi, Deirdre Wilson (2010). Mind & Language.
Proposes a framework for evaluating communicated information and the competence and intentions of its source.
Robert B. Zajonc (1968). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
Foundational work on how repeated exposure can influence liking; the effect is distinct from judgments of truth.
Lisa K. Fazio, Nadia M. Brashier, B. Keith Payne, Elizabeth J. Marsh (2015). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
Tests repetition and truth judgments, including cases where participants have relevant prior knowledge.
Sam Wineburg, Joel Breakstone, Sarah McGrew, Mark D. Smith, Teresa Ortega (2022). Journal of Educational Psychology.
A field study of instruction in evaluating online information through lateral reading.
Claire Wardle, Hossein Derakhshan (2017). Council of Europe.
Distinguishes misinformation, disinformation, and malinformation by falsity and intent, and examines how information moves through production and distribution.
Rose M. Spielman, William J. Jenkins, Marilyn D. Lovett (2020). OpenStax, Rice University.
An introductory account of memory construction, reconstruction, suggestibility, and the misinformation effect.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (2024). NIST AI 600-1.
Describes generative-AI risks, including confabulation: confidently presented content that is erroneous, false, or inconsistent with relevant inputs.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (n.d.). NIST Computer Security Resource Center Glossary.
Provides a technical definition of generative AI and links to the source document for that definition.
Ye Jia, Yu Zhang, Ron J. Weiss, Quan Wang, Jonathan Shen, Fei Ren, Zhifeng Chen, Patrick Nguyen, Ruoming Pang, Ignacio Lopez Moreno, Yonghui Wu (2018). Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 31.
Describes a speech-synthesis system that adapts to speaker characteristics from reference recordings; this is a technical study, not a study of listener trust or memory.
Paul Groth, Luc Moreau (2013). World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
A Working Group Note, edited by Groth and Moreau, introducing standards for representing and exchanging provenance information.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (2024). NIST AI 100-4.
Reviews provenance, watermarking, detection, and related transparency methods, including their technical limitations and tradeoffs.
Stephan Lewandowsky, John Cook, Ullrich K. H. Ecker, Dolores Albarracín, Michelle A. Amazeen, Panayiota Kendeou, Doug Lombardi, Eryn J. Newman, Gordon Pennycook, Ethan Porter, David G. Rand, David N. Rapp, Jason Reifler, Jon Roozenbeek, Philipp Schmid, Colleen M. Seifert, Gale M. Sinatra, Briony Swire-Thompson, Sander van der Linden, Emily K. Vraga, Thomas J. Wood, Maria S. Zaragoza (2020). The Debunking Handbook author group; University of Nebraska–Lincoln repository.
A collaborative synthesis of evidence on misinformation and correction, including factual explanations and continued influence.
National Research Council (2000). National Academies Press.
Chapter 3 reviews transfer to new tasks and situations, including the roles of understanding, practice, and learning conditions.
